The smithing procedure
Blacksmiths shape wrought iron or steel with hand tools such as a hammer, anvil, and chisel after heating the metal until it becomes soft enough to shape. Heating is usually done in a forge that is powered by propane, natural gas, coal, charcoal, coke, or oil.
For more localized heating, some modern blacksmiths may use an oxyacetylene or similar blowtorch. Modern blacksmiths are becoming more interested in induction heating methods.
Color is important for indicating metal temperature and workability. As iron heats up, it begins to glow red, then orange, yellow, and finally white. The bright yellow-orange color that indicates forging heat is ideal for most forging. Some blacksmiths work in dim, low-light conditions because they must be able to see the glowing color of the metal, but the majority work in well-lit conditions. The key is to have consistent lighting that isn't overly bright. The colors are obscured by direct sunlight.
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Forging
Forging, the hammering process used by smiths to shape metal, differs from machining in that it does not remove material. The smith, on the other hand, hammers the iron into shape. Even smiths' punching and cutting operations (except when trimming waste) re-arrange metal around the hole rather than drilling it out as swarf.
These operations typically necessitate the use of a hammer and anvil, but smiths also employ other tools and techniques to accommodate odd-sized or repetitive jobs.
Drawing
Drawing the metal lengthens it by reducing one or both of the other two dimensions. As the depth or width of the piece is reduced, it is lengthened or "drawn out."
As an example of drawing, a smith making a chisel might flatten a square bar of steel, lengthening it, reducing its depth but maintaining its width.
The drawing does not have to be consistent. Making a wedge or a woodworking chisel blade can result in a taper. A point is formed when two dimensions are tapered.
Drawing can be done using a variety of tools and methods. Hammering on the anvil horn and hammering on the anvil face with a hammer's cross peen are two common methods for using only a hammer and anvil.
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Another method for drawing is to use a fuller, also known as a hammer peen, to speed up the drawing out of a thick piece of metal. (This is known as fullering from the tool.) Fullering entails hammering a series of indentations with corresponding ridges perpendicular to the piece being drawn's long section. The resulting effect is similar to waves running along the top of the piece. The smith then flips the hammer over and hammers the tops of the ridges down level with the bottoms of the indentations with the flat face. This causes the metal to grow much faster in length (and width if left unchecked) than simply hammering with the flat face of the hammer.
Bending
When iron is heated to a "forging heat," it can be bent as if it were a soft, ductile metal like copper or silver.
Bending can be accomplished by hammering over the anvil's horn or edge, or by inserting a bending fork into the hardy hole (the square hole in the anvil's top), placing the work piece between the tines of the fork, and bending the material to the desired angle. Bends can be dressed and tightened or widened by hammering them over the anvil's appropriately shaped part.
Some metals are "hot short," which means that they lose tensile strength when heated. They become similar to Plasticine in that, while they can still be manipulated by squeezing, any attempt to stretch them, even by bending or twisting, will cause them to crack and break apart. This is a problem for some blade-making steels, which must be worked carefully to avoid developing hidden cracks that will cause future failure. Titanium is a particularly hot short, despite the fact that it is rarely hand-worked. It makes even common smithing processes like decoratively twisting a bar impossible.
Upsetting
The process of making metal thicker in one dimension while shortening in the other is upsetting. One method is to heat the end of a rod and then hammer on it like a nail: the rod shortens and the hot part widens. Instead of hammering on the hot end, place it on the anvil and hammer on the cold end.
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Punching
Punching can be used to make a decorative pattern or a hole. A smith, for example, would punch a hole in a heavy bar or rod for the hammer handle in preparation for making a hammerhead. Punching isn't just for making depressions and holes. It also includes chiseling, cutting, slitting, and drifting.
Bringing processes together
To produce and refine the shapes required for finished products, the five basic forging processes are frequently combined. To make a cross-peen hammer head, for example, a smith would start with a bar roughly the diameter of the hammer face: the handle hole would be punched and drifted (widened by inserting or passing a larger tool through it), the head would be cut (punched, but with a wedge), the peen drawn to a wedge, and the face would be dressed by upsetting.
Because it is lengthened by drawing, it will tend to spread in width, just like a chisel. To check the spread and keep the metal at the correct width, a smith would frequently turn the chisel-to-be on its side and hammer it back down, upsetting it.
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Alternatively, if a smith needed to make a 90-degree bend in a bar and wanted a sharp corner on the outside of the bend, they would start by hammering an unsupported end to make the curved bend. Then, to "fatten up" the bend's outside radius, one or both arms would need to be pushed back to fill the curve's outer radius. So they'd hammer the ends of the stock into the bend, 'upsetting' it at the bend's point. They would then dress the bend by drawing the bend's sides to maintain the proper thickness. The hammering would keep going—upsetting and then drawing—until the curve was properly shaped. The bend was the primary operation, but the drawing and upsetting are done to refine the shape.
Welding
To accomplish this, a modern blacksmith has a variety of options and tools at his disposal. Traditional forge welding, as well as modern methods such as oxyacetylene and arc welding, are the most common types of welding used in a modern workshop.
In forge welding, the pieces to be joined are heated to what is known as welding heat. Most smiths judge the temperature of mild steel by its color: the metal glows an intense yellow or white. The steel is nearly molten at this temperature.
Finishing
A blacksmith may finish the piece in a variety of ways, depending on its intended use:
A simple jig (tool) that the smith may only use a few times in the shop may receive the bare minimum of finishing—a rap on the anvil to break off scale and a brush with a wire brush.
Files finish a piece by removing burrs and sharp edges and smoothing the surface.
The desired hardness is achieved through heat treatment and case hardening.
The wire brush, whether used as a hand tool or a power tool, can smooth, brighten, and polish surfaces even further.
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Surfaces can be further shaped, smoothed, and polished using grinding stones, abrasive paper, and emery wheels.
A variety of treatments and finishes can be used to prevent oxidation and improve or change the appearance of the piece. An experienced smith chooses the finish based on the metal and the item's intended use. Paint, varnish, bluing, browning, oil, and wax are examples of finishes.
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